| Abstract (english) | The study aimed to determine the influence of motivational factors in the teaching of physical education through the intervention program (IP) Forma on positive psychological states in adolescents. IP Forma is designed according to a holistic paradigm in which body and mind form a coherent whole.
At the beginning of the theoretical part of the study, three fundamental terms were defined: (1) motivational factors; (2) motivational factors in the context of physical and health education; and (3) motivational factors in the context of Holistic education.
(1) Motivational factors are techniques and strategies that aim to foster positive psychological states. This research delves into how motivational factors impact mindfulness, self-determination motivation, satisfaction of psychological needs, and holistic experience of motivation within the Forma intervention program in physical education. These positive psychological states serve as indicators and predictors of experiencing a sense of meaning and purpose. The use of effective motivational factors is intended to cultivate these positive states and, in turn, enhance a sense of meaning and purpose. This exploration of motivational factors draws from scientific and philosophical research and is exemplified through a case study involving the Forma intervention program, which is founded on this research. Examples of motivational factors are physical exercise, reading the great books, writing (e.g., creative, journaling), dialogue, mindfulness, and prayer.
(2) Motivational factors in physical and health education have been explored in depth by Edin Branković and his colleagues since 2014, aligning with the current trend in educational research emphasizing the importance of spiritual development in Positive Youth Development. The study of motivational factors in physical education is driven by two key factors: Firstly, the recognized link between physical well-being and the positive impact of physical activities on individuals; and secondly, concerns over the declining physical activity and motor skills of students due to a sedentary lifestyle and the prevalence of “absence of meaning,” “spiritual crisis,” “nihilism”, and “emptiness.” These negative psychological states manifest as a lack of mindfulness, unmet psychological needs, amotivation, and a sense of meaninglessness, leading to complex mental and physical conditions like boredom, apathy, anxiety, depression, sexual misconduct, usage of psychoactive substances, etc. Global research, such as the Teen Voice study, highlights that activities like sport and physical exercise, art, and mindful use of technology are effective in promoting positive emotional states and fostering a sense of purpose and personal values, thereby reducing negative psychological states. Over the last two decades, traditional practices—also called “spiritual exercise”—like mindfulness and prayer have gained traction in neuroscience research due to their positive impact on well-being. Overall, this raises the question of identifying motivational factors to address the evolving needs of modern education, necessitating a shift in both theoretical frameworks and practical approaches to fulfill students’ real needs, restructuring and renovating the educational process. The term “education” (from the Latin educare) has been approached in its essential meaning which encompasses both character nurturing and skill development, as elaborated in the chapter on the Holistic education paradigm.
(3) Motivational factors in Holistic education encompass a comprehensive approach to individuals that goes beyond solely physical and mental aspects. A reductionistic approach has been identified as a key contributor to health and existential challenges, as evidenced by scientific research and philosophies of science and education. Contemporary integrated studies emphasize the importance of spiritual development and meaning in both education and life, moving away from a reductionist view of spirituality. A holistic approach considers the human being as an integral whole comprised of body, soul, and spirit (intellect), with each aspect interconnected and influencing the others. In different languages, they are the Greek
sōma, psyche, pneuma (nous); the Latin corpus, anima, spiritus (intellectus); the Chinese Shēn / hsen, ling, shén; the Arabic jism, nafs, rūḥ (ʿaql); and the Croatian tijelo, duša, duh (um). Mind or reason is the content of the soul according to this perspective. Said holistic approach forms the foundation of the Holistic education paradigm advocated in this research, which identifies motivational factors aligned with these aspects, drawing on scientific and philosophical research to describe and explore them individually and in their interconnected contexts. That is to say, the application of motivational factors to one aspect impacts other aspects as well. A teaching model incorporating these factors was developed and implemented in the Forma intervention program as part of this study. According to the Holistic education paradigm, the goal of the educational process is to inspire and motivate personal transformation in students, fostering awareness of choices and responsibility, known as conscience, intellection, and intellectual intuition. Such heightened awareness leads to insights into personal relationships with others, objects, and oneself, facilitating personal growth and self-transcendence toward experiencing meaning and purpose. This transformative process also results in the manifestation of positive psychological states, as outlined in contemporary positive psychology, as well as broader soul states encompassing virtues, character development, and the embodiment of metaphysical principles which are outlined in premodern and traditional psychology. Until recently, for instance, cultivation of virtues, mindsets, and character traits have been viewed mostly as abstract concepts related solely to philosophy and theology. However, contemporary integrative research emphasizes the positive impact of such cultivation of the aforementioned aspects in various practices, like mindfulness, which belong to motivational factors in this research. They are also called “spiritual,” “meditative”, and “contemplative” practices in different traditions, for example in Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, or Islam. These practices have garnered scientific and philosophical interest on account of their rootedness in living traditions, their positive influence on well-being, as well as the prevailing health crisis. Therefore, these practices and a holistic perspective have been approached here from a traditional point of view, meaning the admittance of metaphysical principles found in authentic spiritual and wisdom traditions. Contemporary studies often overlook or ignore the roots of the practices of the wisdom traditions and tend to uproot and syncretize them, which can be misleading and counterproductive. Accordingly, the Holistic education paradigm underscores the importance of cultivating awareness to recognize the sacred in all aspects of life through the application of motivational factors, thereby fostering positive psychological states, a sense of meaning and purpose, while strengthening conscience within individuals.
In the subsequent theoretical sections, comprising ten chapters, a detailed exposition of the Holistic paradigm and the Holistic education paradigm—forming the conceptual foundation of the IP Forma—is provided. Initially, the interconnection between kinesiology and holistic education research is elucidated, highlighting the integrative research requirements in kinesiology that encompass psychology, pedagogy, neuroscience, and medicine. The overarching goal was to broaden kinesiology research horizons and address contemporary challenges in physical education, notably the lack of motivation for physical activity and the absence of meaningful experiences in the educational domain. The potential for a new paradigm in kinesiology education is explored, critiquing the prevailing modernist and scientific reductionism which impacts the contemporary understanding of kinesiology, sports, and exercise. The reductionist perspective is critiqued for its limitations in addressing existential concerns such as inner emptiness and existential anxiety, “nihilism”, and “existential vacuum”, as articulated by philosophers like Søren A. Kierkegaard (d. 1855), Friedrich Nietzsche (d. 1900), and Viktor Frankl (d. 1997). The necessity for a paradigm shift is underlined by insights from neuroscience, the resurgence of traditional physical disciplines like yoga and tai chi, and the growing interest in meditative practices like mindfulness.
Preceding the delineation of the new paradigm, historical perspectives in terms of “holistic education” were discussed, encompassing premodern traditions, living traditions, and modern educational reform movements. The narrative delves into the challenges posed by dualism and scientific reductionism, advocating for the integration of spirituality, spiritual development, and meaning into contemporary education. The complexities of spiritual discourse in the “new age” era and the implications of reducing the soul to mere “mental” or “psychic” facets are critically examined, attributing these phenomena to the neglect of traditional psychology. Also, drawing on Viktor Frankl’s existentialist philosophy and logotherapy, the narrative emphasizes the significance of traditional psychology or pneumatology (literally, “knowing the spirit” or “knowledge of the spirit”) in counteracting the causes and effects of scientific reductionism on understanding the human being.Logotherapy represents a way of approaching the importance of traditional psychology to the man of the secular age which is marked by scientific reductionism. Traditional psychology (pneumatology) as metaphysical knowledge of authentic tradition goes into much further detail as regards spiritual development, but in any case offers a theory and practice necessary to live healthily and to find meaning and purpose. Both logotherapy and traditional psychology underscore the holistic nature of human existence, wherein the spiritual dimension plays a pivotal role in the pursuit of meaning. This holistic perspective aligns with the shared belief that humans are driven by a profound quest for meaning and the sacred, echoing the etymological connection between “health” and “holy.” Frankl puts it in a way that human beings are essentially determined not by the need for pleasure and power, but by the “will to meaning.” The discussion also touches upon the concept of spiritual exercises as articulated by Pierre Hadot, advocating for the practical application of theoretical frameworks to bridge the gap between theory and practice in academia. Ultimately, the Holistic paradigm and the Holistic education paradigm aspire to establish a symbiotic relationship between theory and practice within educational contexts.
The Holistic paradigm articulated in this research underscores the interconnectedness of the human being under the aspects “body and mind,” or “body, reason, soul, and spirit.” This paradigm draws inspiration from diverse philosophical perspectives, including the philosophy of nothingness of the Kyoto School, whose main representatives are Kitarō Nishida (d. 1945), Hajime Tanabe (d. 1962), and Keiji Nishitani (d. 1990); the perennial philosophy of the traditionalist school represented by René Guénon (d. 1951), Ananda K. Coomaraswamy (d. 1947), Titus Burckhardt (d. 1984), Frithjof Schuon (d. 1998), Martin Lings (d. 2005), Huston Smith (d. 2016), William Stoddart (d. 2023), and Seyyed H. Nasr; and Oriental philosophy as expounded by Toshihiko Izutsu (d. 1993). These philosophical frameworks address contemporary challenges while offering traditional wisdom to navigate modern complexities. Central themes such as faith, conscience, freedom, responsibility, and authentic religiosity related to traditional metaphysics are highlighted as pivotal elements in fostering meaning, purpose, and spirituality. At the same time, they provide guidance in overcoming negative mental and psychological states prevalent today overall and in educational systems. Also, their commonality is that the traditional approach to theory and practice serves as a conduit for spiritual growth, reinforcing conscience, facilitating personal connection with the divine, and promoting deeper introspection.
Based on such a foundation, the Holistic paradigm integrates traditional principles and theory into daily activities which can catalyze spiritual advancement and encourage individuals to reflect more profoundly on their existence. It also integrates traditional spiritual practices along with other practices summed under the term “motivational factors” tailored to each aspect of the human constitution, while being aware of the pitfalls of scientific reductionism and syncretism that often overshadow the significance of tradition and spirituality. The Holistic education paradigm is therefore introduced in this research as an educational approach centered on nurturing all aspects of the human self through the application of theory and practice regarding motivational factors. Accordingly, these applications of the factors aim to cultivate an atmosphere and state where students are receptive to uncovering meaning and purpose throughout their educational journey by fostering states like mindfulness, psychological fulfillment, self-determination, and motivation. Such education is envisioned as a dual process of “exteriorization of the inner” and “interiorization of the outer,” emphasizing the traditional perspective of harmonizing
internal and external growth.
While all motivational factors are interconnected, those addressing aspects of body (the bodily/physical aspect) and reason (the mental/rational aspect) facilitate the external manifestation of internal growth, while those focusing on soul (the psychic/psychological aspect) and spiritual (the spitirual aspect) dimensions promote the internalization of external influences. Based on the research criteria guiding this study, which involve identifying and selecting easily applicable motivational factors within the context of the paradigm for physical education instruction, the theoretical underpinnings for each of the four groups of factors are outlined with a particular focus on those utilized in this research in IP Forma.
They are:
* the bodily/physical aspect (consciously directed physical exercise);
* the mental/rational aspect (rhetoric as active listening and purposeful speaking, reading the great books,
creative writing);
* the psychic/psychological aspect (expressive writing, contemplative writing, writing a diary, meaningful and
purposeful dialogue, methods of growth mindset and metacognition);
* the spiritual aspect (cultivating virtue, mindfulness, prayer).
Following an in-depth exposition of the theoretical underpinnings and the empirical research founding the theoretical part of the research, the next chapters discuss similar contemporary studies advocating for a holistic approach to physical education and physical activity. Further exposition of contemporary studies delves into psychological statesindicative of meaning and purpose in education, encompassing basic psychological needs, self-determination motivation, flow experience, growth mindset, mindfulness, and the holistic experience of motivation. A detailed review is then provided of similar intervention programs and the corresponding motivational factors employed within these interventions. Finally the intervention program Forma utilized in this research is introduced and described in detail, with subsequent chapters of the study outlining the research methods, findings, and conclusions.
The latter can be summarized as follows:
The impact of the IP Forma was measured by scales for mindfulness, basic psychological needs, and motivation in the physical education class. The research was conducted on a sample of 121 participants of adolescent age (14–15 years of age) at the Isak Samokovlija Elementary School in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina), which were divided into two groups, experimental and control, at a ratio of 50% to 50%. The experimental group participated in IP Forma for four weeks, three times weekly, and the control group participated in the usual work program without any intervention. After the implementation of the initial and final measurements, a statistical analysis of descriptive characteristics and twoway mixed ANOVA was performed. Data processing was done by IBM SPSS Statistics v29.
The initial measurement results indicated a similar starting point for both groups. In the final measurement, statistically significant differences emerged between the experimental and control groups, favoring the experimental group in terms of mindfulness and motivation. Notably, there was a significant decrease in negative aspects of motivation, such as
amotivation, external, and introjected regulation. Positive changes were also observed in psychological needs and holistic motivation for the experimental group, although they did not reach a statistically significant level. These findings suggest that the IP Forma, coupled with motivational factors, positively impacts the cultivation of positive psychological states in adolescents, serving as indicators and predictors of meaningful and purposeful experiences. The scientific contribution of the study lies in identifying, organizing, and categorizing motivational factors for physical and mental well-being within the framework of holistic education. The IP Forma has the potential to enhance student mindfulness and motivation in physical education classes, addressing the prevalent decline in physical activity among young individuals and the associated challenges to both physical and mental health.
The study’s findings contribute to the classification of motivational factors for the body, reason (mind), soul, and spirit within the Holistic education paradigm and promoting the cultivation of positive psychological states. To standardize the IP, future research should encompass larger sample sizes across diverse geographical locations, alongside comprehensive training for educators. Educator training is crucial for the success of such interventions, as personal examples significantly impact educational outcomes. Consistent application of motivational factors is essential to sustain a receptive and growth mindset towards finding meaning and purpose in daily life and therefore to experience positive psychological states and to deal appropriately with negative ones. The core objective of employing motivational factors in education is to empower students to recognize their inner strength to overcome challenges, fostering a sense of meaning and purpose. This process is closely linked to concepts like insight, intuition, intellection, and conscience, which reflect the spiritual dimension of human existence. Ultimately, experiencing meaning and purpose as manifestations of the spiritual realm leads to the manifestation of positive psychological states and capability to deal appropriately with negative ones. |
